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More about Recessive Colors
(albino, leucistic, and creamino)
The leucistic, albino, and creamino color variations are a simple recessive gene. In order for the colors to be visible, the sugar glider must inherit the specific color recessive trait (a) from both parents. If one parent passes the recessive trait (a) and the other passes the dominate wild type trait (A), the offspring will be normal coloration, but is considered a het since the sugar glider does have the gene. In some pairings, it is possible for both parents to pass the dominate wild type trait (A), resulting in gray gliders that will not have the color gene. Below are sample pairings using a punnet square. Punnet squares are used to calculate the genetic possibilities of the offspring.
A= Dominate Standard Gene
a= Recessive Color Gene A A A AA AA A AA AA This is a pairing of 2 standard sugar gliders. You will not see a colored sugar gliders from this pairing, nor will you have a het produced.
A= Dominate Standard Gene
a= Recessive Color Gene
A a A AA Aa A AA Aa This paring is a het for a specific coloration (Aa), and a wild type, or standard color sugar glider (AA). Again, you will not see a colored glider from this pairing. However, 50% of the time you will produce hets for the specific color. 50% of the time, the offspring will be normal in color and not have the color gene. These parings are often done to outbreed the color lines. Out breeding helps to stabilize the lines, and prevent gentic problems such as sterility or genetic deformities either emotional or physical.
A= Dominate Standard Gene
a= Recessive Color Gene
a a A Aa Aa A Aa Aa This paring is for a colored sugar glider (aa) and a wild type, or standard color sugar glider (AA). Again, you will not see a color sugar glider from this pairing. However, 100% of the time you will produce leucistic hets. This is usually another pairing done to outbreed the color lines.
A= Dominate Standard Gene
a= Recessive Color Gene
A a A AA Aa a Aa aa This paring is for 2 hets for a specific coloration (Aa). In this pairing you will see color 25% of the time, 50% of the time you will produce a het, and 25% of the time you will produce a normal colored sugar glider without the color gene. Often times this is where you will see sugar gliders sold as 66% possible hets. This means that the sugar glider has a 66% chance at carrying the gene. One sugar glider out of 4 will show color. If the sugar glider is not of color, we know that one of the 4 potential outcomes can be eliminated. This leaves 3 other options. Looking at the square, you can see that 2 of the 3 options are a het for the color, while one is just a normal color joey. Averaging the new odds, the sugar glider has a 66% chance at having the color gene, and a 33% chance at being a standard color glider without the gene.
A= Dominate Standard Gene
a= Recessive Color Gene
a a A Aa Aa a aa aa This paring is for a colored sugar glider (aa), and a het for the specific coloration (Aa) This pairing you will see color 50% of the time, 50% of the time you will produce a het. Standard colored gliders are sold as 100% hets. Since one of the parents displays color, we know all offspring have the color gene.
A= Dominate Standard Gene
a= Recessive Color Gene a a a aa aa a aa aa This paring is for 2 colored sugar gliders. These pairings will see color 100% of the time. Often times these pairings are not recommended. We do not know if there is a fatal white gene in sugar gliders at this time. In addition, the color recessive lines are tightly bred. It is important for responsible breeders to continue to outbreed the lines to ensure the lines genetic health.
Quick Guide
Standard to Standard= Standard 100% of the time
Color to Standard= Hets 100% of the time
Color to Het= 50% Color/50% Hets
Het to Het= 50% Hets/25% Standard/25% Color (often times sugar gliders that do not have color are sold as 66% possible hets. This is because of the 4 possibilities, 1 sugar glider will show color, therefore only leaving 3 possibliles if the sugar glider does not have color.)
Color to Color= 100% Color
Note: Percentages are based on the probability of having a 100% het. A glider is either a 100% het or a standard. In other words, when buying a 50% possible het, you have a 50% chance the sugar glider is a 100% het, and a 50% chance it is a standard color without the gene.
Sterile Lines and Sterile Gliders:
Q. Why are some sugar gliders sterile?
A. Early on, some lines of sugar gliders were excessively inbred to reproduce color. At the time, it was likely unknown how the specific color trait was passed on. In order to attempt to reproduce the color, the breeder(s) over inbred the line without introducing sufficient "new blood" into the line. As a result, the males began to develop deformed, and under developed testacies. In some cases, the testacies did develop properly, however they never dropped into the sac. If the testacies do not drop into the sac, healthy sperm will not be able to develop.
Q. Will the females produce?
A. Yes, the females will be able to be bred. The inbreeding did not appear to affect the females. However, the females are responsible for passing down the sterility gene. In other words, if you have a female from sterile lines, and she has a male joey, it will be likely that the male will be sterile.
Q. I was told the male "should produce", how do they know?
A. It has already been proven that the sterility can be bred out with the proper introduction of "new blood" into the line. In some lines it takes 3 or 4 generations out from the original "sterile" gliders to start seeing males produce. In others lines could be quite a bit more generations needed to begin seeing fertile males. In honesty, it really depends on the specific line, and how much inbreeding was done. Breeders working with sterile lines will often check the joeys testicles to determine if they are developing properly. If the testacies drop, are firm, and average size, it is possible that the sugar glider will be able to produce. However, that is NOT a guarantee that the male will be able to have joeys.
Q. I was told the line is "Proven" what does that mean?
A. This means that the males in the line have been proven to produce healthy offspring and that no sterility has been passed down from that point on. In order for a line to be considered "proven" a full generation should be able to produce healthy and fertile babies for at least one full generation. Please note that a pair of sugar gliders from sterile lines can have both sterile, fertile, and slow producing males. This means that just because a brother has proven to be fertile does NOT mean that another brother will prove to be fertile. A true proven line should have several males within the a generation all producing healthy and fertile offspring.
Q. After a male from a sterile line is "Proven", are his male offspring going to be sterile?
A. There really hasn't been a lot of information in this area. Before we can say 100%, we need more information from various breeding programs. From my personal experience and from speaking with other breeders with experience with the sterile lines, I would say no the males will not be sterile. After the male has been proven, his male offspring should be able to produce without complications. With the information we currently have now, it is believed that the "sterile" gene is passed down from the female. This means that a fertile male from a "sterile line" paired with a female not of "sterile lines" would not have the sterility gene to pass down.
Q. I heard that even when males start to produce from sterile lines, there is a higher cannibalization rate due to a possible problem with the fetus. Is this true?
A. While it is possible this may be happening is some cases, there just hasn't been enough information to really come to a conclusion as to why or even IF it is happening. Cannibalization can occur for a number of reasons, not all of them are genetically related. Social structure of colonies, inexperienced/young mothers, diet deficiencies, and illnesses can be possible causes of cannibalization. Anytime cannibalization occurs in sugar gliders, regardless of what line the sugar glider is from, there could be a genetic cause. Unfortunately, there is usually no way to tell why a cannibalization really occurred.
I have spoken to at least one breeder that has worked with the "sterile lines" for many years. She has stated that she has seen very little cannibalization in gliders from "sterile" lines, and it certainly doesn't appear to be any higher than what would be normally seen amongst other breeding gliders.
Q. What is the difference between a "slow producing" male and a "sterile" male?
A. A "slow producing" male will produce joeys. It may be only once or twice a year, or even once or twice EVER, but he IS able to produce offspring. A sterile male is UNABLE to have joeys, ever.
Q. I was told the male "developed normally" does this mean he will have babies?
A. Breeders will often check to see if the male's testacies have developed normally. Normal testacies are the first sign of the fertility returning in the males. If the testacies drop properly, are firm, and average to large in sized, there is a chance that male can produce healthy offspring, but this is NOT a 100% guarantee. While it may be possible for the male to be fertile and produce as a "normal" male, it may also be possible that he is a "slow producer". "Slow producers" are believed to have lower sperm counts, or lower sperm quality. Slow producing males often only have 1 or 2 joeys a year, and will often only father a few joeys within his lifetime.
Q. The brother to my "possible sterile" male produced, does this mean my male will be fertile as well?
A. NO, this does not mean your male will prove to produce. Each male must be proven on his own terms, and not that of his siblings. Being that a brother had proven, it is a good sign that the fertility is returning in that particular generation. This may increasing the chance your male will produce, but is NOT a guarantee.
Q. Do sterile males have bald spots and other scent gland?
A. Yes, they sure can. Usually sterile males do tend to have "less active" scent glands and MAY be considerably smaller in size than a fertile male, but that certainly is NOT a rule. They can have full size "bald spots" and still be sterile.
Q. How are the sterile lines bred out?
A. The lines are bred out when a sugar glider of an unrelated, non-sterile line is bred the the sugar glider from the "sterile" line. Each time this is done, it is considered 1 generation out.
Sugar gliders are wonderful and beautiful animals no matter what color they are on the outside. Recently there has been a huge number of new colors and color variations. It is hard with out a large amount of money to be sure about sugar glider genetics. Most of what we know about sugar glider genetics comes from the basic understanding of Mendel's laws of heredity and the trial and error of well documented breeding programs.
Vocabulary
Here are some common abbreviations, words, and terminology used when speaking about sugar gliders, their colors, and genetics:
Alleles- Each alternate form of a gene. The alleles are represented by letters on a punnett square.
Dominant- Refers to an allele of a gene that is always expressed in heterozygotes. Shown with a capital letter in a punnett square.
Gene- Section of a chromosome that carries the information for a specific trait.
Het- Short for Heterozygote.
Heterozygous- Having two different alleles of a gene pair. (one dominant, one recessive example Aa or Bb).
Homozygous- Having the same allele at the same locus on a chromosome; two recessive genes are paired, or two dominant genes are paired. (either one dominant, one dominant ~0R~ one recessive, one recessive example aa or AA).
Punnett square- A diagram shows possible gene combinations of offspring to a mated pair.
Recessive- In order for the trait to be expressed, there must be two copies of the allele. The gene or trait is hidden in the presence of a dominant one. Shown with a lower case letter in a punnett square.
WF- White Face, a sugar glider lacking the bar under it's ear.
WFB- White Face Blonde, a sugar glider lacking the bar under it's ear, plus the blonde coloration.
WT- Wild Type or Normal this refers to the color most often found in the wild.
White Face
White Face is not a color, rather a mutation of the stripes. On a white face sugar glider the bar that is under the sugar glider's ear is missing, giving the appearance of a white face. There will be no dots or traces of the bar at all. It also appears that the eye rings are lighter and/or broken. It is important to note that some joeys will not get the bar under their ear until they are about 5 days out of pouch. There are currently 2 theories that can explain the white face variation.Theory #1- It is possible that more than one gene controls the white face variation. Due to the lack of studies in sugar glider genetics, we can only hypothesize how the gene(s) work. White face may in fact be a dominant gene, with a seperate modifier gene that acts similar to a switch to determine if the white face variation will be shown in the offspring. When the modifier gene is "on", the het for white face will show white face. When the modifier gene is "off", the joey will be normal in appearance, but still may carry the white face gene. If the "switch" is on the same chromosome as white face mutation, and very close, the "on" could almost always be inherited with white face, and the "off" almost always with normal/classic or wild type. This would explain why some "larger" breeders have claimed to produce white faces from two hets.
Theory #2- White face is dominate. If the white face is not showing, the glider does not carry the white face gene. This would mean that there are NO white face hets. It is believed by pairing several generations of solid white face gliders together, that you can "breed out" the gray gene. For example, if the sugar glider has 3 or more generations of solid white faces in his background, then those sugar glider will only produce white face offspring. So far this has proved true with 3rd generation pairing that have documented lines. White faces that only produce white faces no matter what they are paired to are considered "super white faces" or "super blondes". We have seen the white face mutation appear with many sugar glider colors, such as gray/classic, cinnamon, blonde, champagne, mosaic and white tip. So the white face does not always appear with the blonde coloration. As of December 2007, first generation white face blonde and white face gray sugar gliders are starting at around $350.00. Colors with white faces and white face gliders with consecutive full white face generations usually sell for more depending on the color, breeding, and number of white face to white face pairing in a glider background.
White Tip
A white tip sugar glider has a white tip at the end of it's tail. This amount of white varies from just a few hairs to 2 inches or more. The average white tip seen in captivity at this time is about 1/4-1 inch long. It is believed that the white tip tail we see showing up in captive bred gliders is a sign of the subspecies Petaurus breviceps ariel. Most white tips born in captivity have come from normal color parents, with no documentation of white tip in their histories. There are few long standing and documented breeding programs working with this color at this time. As a result, there is almost no information available as to how this gene is passed on. It does appear to be recessive to normal, but it is not known if other genes are involved in producing this color. We do know that white tip is NOT a single recessive gene. IF white tips were a single recessive trait, all offspring from two what tip parents would have been white tipped. A handful of breeders have paired white tips together. Most of these pairings have produced "normal" gliders, while a small hand full of white tip to white tip pairings have produced white tip joeys. Even those pairings that did produce white tips did not produce white tips 100% of the time. This means that even though the parents are white tips, it is unknown if their offspring is a "het" or not since we do not know how the trait comes to be expressed. White tips can appear on any color variation or mutation. As of November 2006, standard colored gliders with white tips are starting out at about $300.00, and going up from there depending on the amount of white on the tail. Colored sugar gliders with white tips do sell for a more depending on the color of the sugar glider.
Leucistic
Also known as a Blacked Eyed White (BEW), a leucistic sugar glider is all white with no markings and black eyes. Some leucistic gliders to have faint yellowish markings. The leucistic gene is believed to be recessive to normal (WT). This means that both gliders must carry the gene in order for them to produce a white offspring. Any glider from the leucistic lines is considered a possible het until it has produced white sugar glider. The only exception is the first generation from a white parent. If one of the parents is white, the joey will carry the leucistic gene. Leucistic sugar gliders are still quite rare and waiting lists can be long. Most breeders will require a USDA license to purchase a leucistic or a 100% het. This is not a law or a requirement of federal or state authorities, this is purly a preference of the breeder for their own reasons. As of April 2007, expect to pay around $2,000.00 for a white female, and $2500.00 for a white male. First generation hets, normal color gliders with one white parent, generally start at about $1000.00.
Red Series
* Chocolate/Brown (Brown coat, Brown or Black Markings)
* Buttercream (Brown coat, Cream and/or yellow highlights, Brown to Red Markings)
* Lion (Honey Coat, Deep Red Markings)
* Red Cinnamon (Red coat, Red and/or Brown Markings)
Red series gliders can be broken down into 4 basic colors. Some breeders recognize all four colors, some may only recognize a few. What we do know for sure is that most of these colors can be bred to "standard" or "wild type" gliders, and still produce some color. It seems with most gray to "red series" pairings, the color will fade each time it is bred to a standard becoming diluted each generation, and eventually being bred out. However, this isn't always the case. To produce truer "red series" colors it is best to pair similar colors together . The more "red series" gliders in the background (or "pedigree"), the better your chances at producing deeper and truer color. Gliders from the "red series" usually sell for 150.00-300.00 depending on the color and background of the glider. (November 2006)
There is a lot of debate on what a true "red series" colored glider will look like upon coming out of pouch, and even how to identify the colors among gliders that are just scent stained or affected by dietary issues. Some believe that they are born colored, and remain colored through out their lives. Others believe that "red series" gliders are born with the variation, ultimately "graying out" during adolescence, only to "come into" their true color around puberty. From my personal experience, I do believe that this is the case. I have spoken with quite a few breeders working with "red series" variations and most do agree. However, this leaves a problem. Since most gliders that are thought to be "red series" gliders are usually misidentified, how do we tell who are the true red cinnamons, and who is just scent stained? Unfortunately there is no easy answer. Since habitat, care, and even diet can affect the color of a sugar glider, the only way we know for sure is to breed gliders from known "red series" lines from trustworthy and experienced breeders.
Mosaic (includes Ring Tail) A mosaic is classified by random white patches on the body, feet, and/or tail. Often times you will hear the term "ring tail mosaic", which refers to a pattern of mosaic rings on the tail, although not all mosaics are ring tailed. The mosaic trait can appear with other "variations" such as platinum, and white face. This trait is co-dominate to the wild type coat (classic gray). This means it is almost certain there are no hets for mosaic. If the color is not expressed, the glider will not be able to produce mosaic offspring. There has been some speculation that standard color gliders (gliders that do not display the mosaic trait), from mosaic lines may increase the frequency of producing mosaic offspring when paired with a glider displaying the mosaic trait. Some lines of mosaics will produce sterile males (females will produce). While other lines will produce males that can be bred. It has been proven that sometime between the 4th and 5th generation bred out from the original sterile line, the males will begin to produce. As of April 2007 mosaics and ring tailed mosaics start at around 800.00 to 4,000.00 depending on the chances of sterility in the glider, sex, and the gliders line. Rarer genetic combinations do usually cost a bit more. Mealworms are a great protein source for your sugar gliders, and most all sugar gliders love mealworms. However, it is recommended that you do add calcium to your sugar glider's diet, as these little buggers are high in phosphorus. As shown in the table below: NUTRITIONAL ANALYSIS
*Please note that diet of the feeders will affect the content, however this will give you are rough estimate.
(albino, leucistic, and creamino)
The leucistic, albino, and creamino color variations are a simple recessive gene. In order for the colors to be visible, the sugar glider must inherit the specific color recessive trait (a) from both parents. If one parent passes the recessive trait (a) and the other passes the dominate wild type trait (A), the offspring will be normal coloration, but is considered a het since the sugar glider does have the gene. In some pairings, it is possible for both parents to pass the dominate wild type trait (A), resulting in gray gliders that will not have the color gene. Below are sample pairings using a punnet square. Punnet squares are used to calculate the genetic possibilities of the offspring.
A= Dominate Standard Gene
a= Recessive Color Gene A A A AA AA A AA AA This is a pairing of 2 standard sugar gliders. You will not see a colored sugar gliders from this pairing, nor will you have a het produced.
A= Dominate Standard Gene
a= Recessive Color Gene
A a A AA Aa A AA Aa This paring is a het for a specific coloration (Aa), and a wild type, or standard color sugar glider (AA). Again, you will not see a colored glider from this pairing. However, 50% of the time you will produce hets for the specific color. 50% of the time, the offspring will be normal in color and not have the color gene. These parings are often done to outbreed the color lines. Out breeding helps to stabilize the lines, and prevent gentic problems such as sterility or genetic deformities either emotional or physical.
A= Dominate Standard Gene
a= Recessive Color Gene
a a A Aa Aa A Aa Aa This paring is for a colored sugar glider (aa) and a wild type, or standard color sugar glider (AA). Again, you will not see a color sugar glider from this pairing. However, 100% of the time you will produce leucistic hets. This is usually another pairing done to outbreed the color lines.
A= Dominate Standard Gene
a= Recessive Color Gene
A a A AA Aa a Aa aa This paring is for 2 hets for a specific coloration (Aa). In this pairing you will see color 25% of the time, 50% of the time you will produce a het, and 25% of the time you will produce a normal colored sugar glider without the color gene. Often times this is where you will see sugar gliders sold as 66% possible hets. This means that the sugar glider has a 66% chance at carrying the gene. One sugar glider out of 4 will show color. If the sugar glider is not of color, we know that one of the 4 potential outcomes can be eliminated. This leaves 3 other options. Looking at the square, you can see that 2 of the 3 options are a het for the color, while one is just a normal color joey. Averaging the new odds, the sugar glider has a 66% chance at having the color gene, and a 33% chance at being a standard color glider without the gene.
A= Dominate Standard Gene
a= Recessive Color Gene
a a A Aa Aa a aa aa This paring is for a colored sugar glider (aa), and a het for the specific coloration (Aa) This pairing you will see color 50% of the time, 50% of the time you will produce a het. Standard colored gliders are sold as 100% hets. Since one of the parents displays color, we know all offspring have the color gene.
A= Dominate Standard Gene
a= Recessive Color Gene a a a aa aa a aa aa This paring is for 2 colored sugar gliders. These pairings will see color 100% of the time. Often times these pairings are not recommended. We do not know if there is a fatal white gene in sugar gliders at this time. In addition, the color recessive lines are tightly bred. It is important for responsible breeders to continue to outbreed the lines to ensure the lines genetic health.
Quick Guide
Standard to Standard= Standard 100% of the time
Color to Standard= Hets 100% of the time
Color to Het= 50% Color/50% Hets
Het to Het= 50% Hets/25% Standard/25% Color (often times sugar gliders that do not have color are sold as 66% possible hets. This is because of the 4 possibilities, 1 sugar glider will show color, therefore only leaving 3 possibliles if the sugar glider does not have color.)
Color to Color= 100% Color
Note: Percentages are based on the probability of having a 100% het. A glider is either a 100% het or a standard. In other words, when buying a 50% possible het, you have a 50% chance the sugar glider is a 100% het, and a 50% chance it is a standard color without the gene.
Sterile Lines and Sterile Gliders:
Q. Why are some sugar gliders sterile?
A. Early on, some lines of sugar gliders were excessively inbred to reproduce color. At the time, it was likely unknown how the specific color trait was passed on. In order to attempt to reproduce the color, the breeder(s) over inbred the line without introducing sufficient "new blood" into the line. As a result, the males began to develop deformed, and under developed testacies. In some cases, the testacies did develop properly, however they never dropped into the sac. If the testacies do not drop into the sac, healthy sperm will not be able to develop.
Q. Will the females produce?
A. Yes, the females will be able to be bred. The inbreeding did not appear to affect the females. However, the females are responsible for passing down the sterility gene. In other words, if you have a female from sterile lines, and she has a male joey, it will be likely that the male will be sterile.
Q. I was told the male "should produce", how do they know?
A. It has already been proven that the sterility can be bred out with the proper introduction of "new blood" into the line. In some lines it takes 3 or 4 generations out from the original "sterile" gliders to start seeing males produce. In others lines could be quite a bit more generations needed to begin seeing fertile males. In honesty, it really depends on the specific line, and how much inbreeding was done. Breeders working with sterile lines will often check the joeys testicles to determine if they are developing properly. If the testacies drop, are firm, and average size, it is possible that the sugar glider will be able to produce. However, that is NOT a guarantee that the male will be able to have joeys.
Q. I was told the line is "Proven" what does that mean?
A. This means that the males in the line have been proven to produce healthy offspring and that no sterility has been passed down from that point on. In order for a line to be considered "proven" a full generation should be able to produce healthy and fertile babies for at least one full generation. Please note that a pair of sugar gliders from sterile lines can have both sterile, fertile, and slow producing males. This means that just because a brother has proven to be fertile does NOT mean that another brother will prove to be fertile. A true proven line should have several males within the a generation all producing healthy and fertile offspring.
Q. After a male from a sterile line is "Proven", are his male offspring going to be sterile?
A. There really hasn't been a lot of information in this area. Before we can say 100%, we need more information from various breeding programs. From my personal experience and from speaking with other breeders with experience with the sterile lines, I would say no the males will not be sterile. After the male has been proven, his male offspring should be able to produce without complications. With the information we currently have now, it is believed that the "sterile" gene is passed down from the female. This means that a fertile male from a "sterile line" paired with a female not of "sterile lines" would not have the sterility gene to pass down.
Q. I heard that even when males start to produce from sterile lines, there is a higher cannibalization rate due to a possible problem with the fetus. Is this true?
A. While it is possible this may be happening is some cases, there just hasn't been enough information to really come to a conclusion as to why or even IF it is happening. Cannibalization can occur for a number of reasons, not all of them are genetically related. Social structure of colonies, inexperienced/young mothers, diet deficiencies, and illnesses can be possible causes of cannibalization. Anytime cannibalization occurs in sugar gliders, regardless of what line the sugar glider is from, there could be a genetic cause. Unfortunately, there is usually no way to tell why a cannibalization really occurred.
I have spoken to at least one breeder that has worked with the "sterile lines" for many years. She has stated that she has seen very little cannibalization in gliders from "sterile" lines, and it certainly doesn't appear to be any higher than what would be normally seen amongst other breeding gliders.
Q. What is the difference between a "slow producing" male and a "sterile" male?
A. A "slow producing" male will produce joeys. It may be only once or twice a year, or even once or twice EVER, but he IS able to produce offspring. A sterile male is UNABLE to have joeys, ever.
Q. I was told the male "developed normally" does this mean he will have babies?
A. Breeders will often check to see if the male's testacies have developed normally. Normal testacies are the first sign of the fertility returning in the males. If the testacies drop properly, are firm, and average to large in sized, there is a chance that male can produce healthy offspring, but this is NOT a 100% guarantee. While it may be possible for the male to be fertile and produce as a "normal" male, it may also be possible that he is a "slow producer". "Slow producers" are believed to have lower sperm counts, or lower sperm quality. Slow producing males often only have 1 or 2 joeys a year, and will often only father a few joeys within his lifetime.
Q. The brother to my "possible sterile" male produced, does this mean my male will be fertile as well?
A. NO, this does not mean your male will prove to produce. Each male must be proven on his own terms, and not that of his siblings. Being that a brother had proven, it is a good sign that the fertility is returning in that particular generation. This may increasing the chance your male will produce, but is NOT a guarantee.
Q. Do sterile males have bald spots and other scent gland?
A. Yes, they sure can. Usually sterile males do tend to have "less active" scent glands and MAY be considerably smaller in size than a fertile male, but that certainly is NOT a rule. They can have full size "bald spots" and still be sterile.
Q. How are the sterile lines bred out?
A. The lines are bred out when a sugar glider of an unrelated, non-sterile line is bred the the sugar glider from the "sterile" line. Each time this is done, it is considered 1 generation out.
Sugar gliders are wonderful and beautiful animals no matter what color they are on the outside. Recently there has been a huge number of new colors and color variations. It is hard with out a large amount of money to be sure about sugar glider genetics. Most of what we know about sugar glider genetics comes from the basic understanding of Mendel's laws of heredity and the trial and error of well documented breeding programs.
Vocabulary
Here are some common abbreviations, words, and terminology used when speaking about sugar gliders, their colors, and genetics:
Alleles- Each alternate form of a gene. The alleles are represented by letters on a punnett square.
Dominant- Refers to an allele of a gene that is always expressed in heterozygotes. Shown with a capital letter in a punnett square.
Gene- Section of a chromosome that carries the information for a specific trait.
Het- Short for Heterozygote.
Heterozygous- Having two different alleles of a gene pair. (one dominant, one recessive example Aa or Bb).
Homozygous- Having the same allele at the same locus on a chromosome; two recessive genes are paired, or two dominant genes are paired. (either one dominant, one dominant ~0R~ one recessive, one recessive example aa or AA).
Punnett square- A diagram shows possible gene combinations of offspring to a mated pair.
Recessive- In order for the trait to be expressed, there must be two copies of the allele. The gene or trait is hidden in the presence of a dominant one. Shown with a lower case letter in a punnett square.
WF- White Face, a sugar glider lacking the bar under it's ear.
WFB- White Face Blonde, a sugar glider lacking the bar under it's ear, plus the blonde coloration.
WT- Wild Type or Normal this refers to the color most often found in the wild.
White Face
White Face is not a color, rather a mutation of the stripes. On a white face sugar glider the bar that is under the sugar glider's ear is missing, giving the appearance of a white face. There will be no dots or traces of the bar at all. It also appears that the eye rings are lighter and/or broken. It is important to note that some joeys will not get the bar under their ear until they are about 5 days out of pouch. There are currently 2 theories that can explain the white face variation.Theory #1- It is possible that more than one gene controls the white face variation. Due to the lack of studies in sugar glider genetics, we can only hypothesize how the gene(s) work. White face may in fact be a dominant gene, with a seperate modifier gene that acts similar to a switch to determine if the white face variation will be shown in the offspring. When the modifier gene is "on", the het for white face will show white face. When the modifier gene is "off", the joey will be normal in appearance, but still may carry the white face gene. If the "switch" is on the same chromosome as white face mutation, and very close, the "on" could almost always be inherited with white face, and the "off" almost always with normal/classic or wild type. This would explain why some "larger" breeders have claimed to produce white faces from two hets.
Theory #2- White face is dominate. If the white face is not showing, the glider does not carry the white face gene. This would mean that there are NO white face hets. It is believed by pairing several generations of solid white face gliders together, that you can "breed out" the gray gene. For example, if the sugar glider has 3 or more generations of solid white faces in his background, then those sugar glider will only produce white face offspring. So far this has proved true with 3rd generation pairing that have documented lines. White faces that only produce white faces no matter what they are paired to are considered "super white faces" or "super blondes". We have seen the white face mutation appear with many sugar glider colors, such as gray/classic, cinnamon, blonde, champagne, mosaic and white tip. So the white face does not always appear with the blonde coloration. As of December 2007, first generation white face blonde and white face gray sugar gliders are starting at around $350.00. Colors with white faces and white face gliders with consecutive full white face generations usually sell for more depending on the color, breeding, and number of white face to white face pairing in a glider background.
White Tip
A white tip sugar glider has a white tip at the end of it's tail. This amount of white varies from just a few hairs to 2 inches or more. The average white tip seen in captivity at this time is about 1/4-1 inch long. It is believed that the white tip tail we see showing up in captive bred gliders is a sign of the subspecies Petaurus breviceps ariel. Most white tips born in captivity have come from normal color parents, with no documentation of white tip in their histories. There are few long standing and documented breeding programs working with this color at this time. As a result, there is almost no information available as to how this gene is passed on. It does appear to be recessive to normal, but it is not known if other genes are involved in producing this color. We do know that white tip is NOT a single recessive gene. IF white tips were a single recessive trait, all offspring from two what tip parents would have been white tipped. A handful of breeders have paired white tips together. Most of these pairings have produced "normal" gliders, while a small hand full of white tip to white tip pairings have produced white tip joeys. Even those pairings that did produce white tips did not produce white tips 100% of the time. This means that even though the parents are white tips, it is unknown if their offspring is a "het" or not since we do not know how the trait comes to be expressed. White tips can appear on any color variation or mutation. As of November 2006, standard colored gliders with white tips are starting out at about $300.00, and going up from there depending on the amount of white on the tail. Colored sugar gliders with white tips do sell for a more depending on the color of the sugar glider.
Leucistic
Also known as a Blacked Eyed White (BEW), a leucistic sugar glider is all white with no markings and black eyes. Some leucistic gliders to have faint yellowish markings. The leucistic gene is believed to be recessive to normal (WT). This means that both gliders must carry the gene in order for them to produce a white offspring. Any glider from the leucistic lines is considered a possible het until it has produced white sugar glider. The only exception is the first generation from a white parent. If one of the parents is white, the joey will carry the leucistic gene. Leucistic sugar gliders are still quite rare and waiting lists can be long. Most breeders will require a USDA license to purchase a leucistic or a 100% het. This is not a law or a requirement of federal or state authorities, this is purly a preference of the breeder for their own reasons. As of April 2007, expect to pay around $2,000.00 for a white female, and $2500.00 for a white male. First generation hets, normal color gliders with one white parent, generally start at about $1000.00.
Red Series
* Chocolate/Brown (Brown coat, Brown or Black Markings)
* Buttercream (Brown coat, Cream and/or yellow highlights, Brown to Red Markings)
* Lion (Honey Coat, Deep Red Markings)
* Red Cinnamon (Red coat, Red and/or Brown Markings)
Red series gliders can be broken down into 4 basic colors. Some breeders recognize all four colors, some may only recognize a few. What we do know for sure is that most of these colors can be bred to "standard" or "wild type" gliders, and still produce some color. It seems with most gray to "red series" pairings, the color will fade each time it is bred to a standard becoming diluted each generation, and eventually being bred out. However, this isn't always the case. To produce truer "red series" colors it is best to pair similar colors together . The more "red series" gliders in the background (or "pedigree"), the better your chances at producing deeper and truer color. Gliders from the "red series" usually sell for 150.00-300.00 depending on the color and background of the glider. (November 2006)
There is a lot of debate on what a true "red series" colored glider will look like upon coming out of pouch, and even how to identify the colors among gliders that are just scent stained or affected by dietary issues. Some believe that they are born colored, and remain colored through out their lives. Others believe that "red series" gliders are born with the variation, ultimately "graying out" during adolescence, only to "come into" their true color around puberty. From my personal experience, I do believe that this is the case. I have spoken with quite a few breeders working with "red series" variations and most do agree. However, this leaves a problem. Since most gliders that are thought to be "red series" gliders are usually misidentified, how do we tell who are the true red cinnamons, and who is just scent stained? Unfortunately there is no easy answer. Since habitat, care, and even diet can affect the color of a sugar glider, the only way we know for sure is to breed gliders from known "red series" lines from trustworthy and experienced breeders.
Mosaic (includes Ring Tail) A mosaic is classified by random white patches on the body, feet, and/or tail. Often times you will hear the term "ring tail mosaic", which refers to a pattern of mosaic rings on the tail, although not all mosaics are ring tailed. The mosaic trait can appear with other "variations" such as platinum, and white face. This trait is co-dominate to the wild type coat (classic gray). This means it is almost certain there are no hets for mosaic. If the color is not expressed, the glider will not be able to produce mosaic offspring. There has been some speculation that standard color gliders (gliders that do not display the mosaic trait), from mosaic lines may increase the frequency of producing mosaic offspring when paired with a glider displaying the mosaic trait. Some lines of mosaics will produce sterile males (females will produce). While other lines will produce males that can be bred. It has been proven that sometime between the 4th and 5th generation bred out from the original sterile line, the males will begin to produce. As of April 2007 mosaics and ring tailed mosaics start at around 800.00 to 4,000.00 depending on the chances of sterility in the glider, sex, and the gliders line. Rarer genetic combinations do usually cost a bit more. Mealworms are a great protein source for your sugar gliders, and most all sugar gliders love mealworms. However, it is recommended that you do add calcium to your sugar glider's diet, as these little buggers are high in phosphorus. As shown in the table below: NUTRITIONAL ANALYSIS
*Please note that diet of the feeders will affect the content, however this will give you are rough estimate.